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FRUIT CULTURE. 



SOUR ORANGE STOCK; FERTILIZmG AND METHODS OF 

COMPOUNDING FERTILIZERS; INJURIOUS INSECT 

PESTS; PARASITES; AND OBSERVATIONS. 



By B. M. LELONCt, 
Secretary of the State Board of Horticulture. 



EX OFFICIO HORTICULTURAL OFFICER. 




SACRAMENTO: 

STATE OFFICE, ::::::: J. D. young, supt. state printing. 

1890. 



•-^*^i^ 



I 

7i< 



FRUIT CULTURE. 



SOUR ORANGE STOCK; FERTILIZING AND METHODS OF 

COMPOUNDING FERTILIZERS; INJURIOUS INSECT 

PESTS; PARASITES; AND OBSERVATIONS. 



^, By B. M. LELONG, 
Secretary of the^State Board of Horticulture. 



EX OFFICIO HORTICULTURAL OFFICER. 




SACRAMENTO 



STATE OFFICE, 



J. D. YOUNG, SUPT. STATE PRINTING. 

1890. 



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^9 9 99 



'K 









PEEFATOEY. 



San Francisco, Cal., June 10, 1890. 

During a leave of absence allotted to me at the last meeting of the 
State Board of Horticulture, I visited several of the Eastern and South- 
ern States in search of information in relation to the fruit industry. 
This investigation, however, was done ivithovt expense to the State. 

I left San Francisco early in April, and visited all the largest fruit- 
growing districts. I also appeared before various committees in Congress, 
at Washington, and laid before them all matters therewith intrusted to 
my care. I hope that the best of results shall be the outcome of this 
mission. 

B. M. L, 



FRUIT CULTURE. 



FRUIT PROSPECTS IN THE EASTERN STATES.— FERTILIZATION AND HOW 
TO COMPOUND FERTILIZERS.— FLORIDA SOUR ORANGE STOCK.— INJU- 
RIOUS INSECT PESTS.— PARASITES AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS.— THEIR 
INTRODUCTION INTO THE STATE.— OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMEN- 
DATIONS. 



FRUIT PROSPECTS IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN 

STATES. 

I visited all the largest fruit districts of Maryland, Delaware, and 
New Jersey, and Ibvmd that the peach crop for this year will be almost 
an entire failure, owing to the heavy March frosts, which destroyed the 
crops. AVhat fruit was not destroyed is much below the average in 
quality. This has been a very heavy loss to the eastern peach growers, 
and has driven many of them out of the business. The trees will have 
to be cultivated for a year without any production or profit, and the 
cultivation is very expensive, as commercial fertilizers have to be applied 
even for the growth of wood. A crop cannot be grown without fertilizers, 
nor can the trees produce fruit buds for the coming year without it. 
There is practically no peach crop in the East anywhere, and it will be 
difficult to supply the demand of the markets with California fruit this 
year. 

The cherry orchards in many districts were full of fruit, but the cur- 
culio had stung nearly every fruit, and, in fact, it was with great diffi- 
culty that any cherries were found that did not contain from two to 
eight holes in them. These holes are of a crescent shape, the work of 
the curculio beetle. 

The plum crop is also damaged by the curculio, and, in fact, very 
little effort is made, on this account, in their culture. The apricot is 
not grown for the reason that the fruit is also destroyed by the curculio, 
and the climate is not suitable for its growth. The pear and apple crops 
will be large; still about 25 per cent will be lost by the ravages of the 
codlin moth. 

This State is the only place from which anything like an adequate 
supply of green and dried fruits can be obtained this year. 

The orange orchards throughout the State of Florida were damaged 
to a great extent by the heavy frosts in March. They have also suffered 
by droughts, having had a very dry winter. The rainy season does not 
begin there until May, and continues through the summer. 

Although the trees have suffered considerably, the fruit crop of Florida 
will be fair, as in many places the frost did little or no damage. These 
places were mostly where the trees were irrigated. Water is pumped 
from the lakes for this purpose. 



— 6 — 

SOUR ORANGE STOCK. 

There are several varieties of the sour orange tree that are used in 
many parts of the country as stock for budding purposes. In Florida 
the " sour orange," or " wild orange," grows in the swamps, and is best 
adapted to those low, wet lands, as in such lands the sweet orange stock 
does not live. For this reason this stock is mostly planted. In Florida 
the sweet orange stock is subject to "foot rot," a disease similar to the 
" gum disease " prevalent in our State, especially in orchards planted on 
heavy soil; these, however, are very limited. The " Hammock" lands 
arc planted with the orange and the lemon. These so called " Hammock " 
lands are low, wet soils, and are always moist. If the sweet orange stock 
be planted in such soils it certainly cannot live, such conditions being en- 
tirely unfavorable to its culture. The sweet orange stock requires good 
soil and high, dry elevation, while the sour stock requires moist soil, 
which is only found in these " Hammock " or low lands. The land 
called ."pine land" is of higher elevation and dry. The pines are 
grubbed out and in their place orange trees are planted. This is what is 
there termed " high pine land," to distinguish it from the Hammock or 
low, wet lands. 

From observations, I find that the stock does influence the bud to 
some extent; this, however, is very slight, and is only noticed by experts. 
One of the greatest objections to this sour stock in those swamps is that 
it throws up suckers very freely, and as they have to be removed con- 
tinually, in time the body of the tree presents a curious phenomenon; 
instead of being smooth, it is very deeply ribbed, and the protuberances 
at the base swell to immense proportions. This, however, is somewhat 
avoided by careful trimming. Trees planted on high land, however, do 
not act thus, and especially where they are properly attended to. 

That this stock is very hardy cannot be denied, but whether it will 
thrive in our dry soils, under entirely different conditions, only time 
can tell. The orange groves of California are not planted on low, wet 
lands (we have no such lands), but on the contrary, are planted on dry 
soil, which is irrigated through the summer. In Florida it rains through 
the summer months, and the winters are generally dry. In California 
we have generally no rains throughout the summer, and the winters are 
mostly wet, this being our rainy season. If irrigation shall take the 
place of rain, and the trees thus become acclimated, time only can deter- 
mine. 

There is no question but that there is a scarcity of orange stock, but 
growers can well afford to wait until the value of this stock is proven 
))eyond a doubt, lest they may make a mistake that will require several 
years to rectify and at great expense. If the stock is really desired 
for orchard purposes, why not import the seed and not the tree? The 
seed, from the time of germination, would be grown in our own climate 
and soil and would receive different treatment, and would certainly be 
better adapted to the locality where the tree is to be grown. There could 
then be no risk, at least in introducing injurious insect pests, as is the 
case where the trees are imported.* 

Perhaps the first orchard planted in this State, budded on this sour 
stock, was that planted at Orange by D. C. Hayward, some ten or fifteen 

*Nurserj'men are now planting the sour orange seed, and very soon plenty of home 
grown stock can be obtained. Some Riverside nurserymen have already considerable 
young nursery stock. 



years ago. At the Fruit Growers' Convention, held at Los Angeles in 
March, 1890, this orchard was reported to have died out. I shall soon 
investigate, in person, whether there is any foundation for the statements 
made, and this matter will be the subject for a subsequent bulletin. 



FRUIT PESTS. 

INJURIOUS INSECT PESTS.— GREAT DANGER OF THEIR INTRODUCTION 
INTO THE STATE, WITH NOTES ON THE SAME. 

There is great danger of introducing various kinds of injurious insect 
l)ests on imported trees, and the greatest care should be exercised in that 
direction. When trees or plants are received from a district, whether 
it be known to be free from insect pests or not, they should be disin- 
fected and thereby avoid the danger of introducing any new pests that 
may pass unnoticed. 

In order to aid in identifying insects liable to be on imported trees, I 
give herewith a short description of each, together with the accompa- 
nying illustrations: 

PURPLE SCALE. 



Mytilaspis citricola, Packard. 




[A purple scale generally found throughout the State of Florida. It resembles Myti- 
Impis pomoruin (oyster-shell scale), which is common in many places on old apple trees. 
In Florida it is a very troublesome pest. (I) Twig and leaf infested by the scale, (a) 
Scale of female from above. (6) Same from below, showing eggs, (c) Scale of male. All 
highly magnified.] 

The purple scale {Mytilaspis citricola) is one of the most common 
species of scale insects found on citrus trees throughout the State of 
Florida. It was imported into Florida (Jacksonville), in 1855, on some 



— 8 — 

lemons sent from Bermuda. Mr. Glover, in mentioning the introduc- 
tion of this insect, said: " Another coccus was imported into Jacksonville, 
Florida, on some lemons sent from Bermuda, and as they may perhaps 
spread in the vicinity, it would be well to draw attention to the insect."* 

Since that time it has spread over many of the largest fruit districts, 
and is very injurious to the tree and fruit, but is most damaging to the 
fruit, covering the surface thickly, in instances almost hiding the rind 
from view. 

Description. — The length of the full grown female scale is rather more 
than one twentieth of an inch; it is somewhat pear shaped, and of a 
brown color; the grub is of a reddish yellow, and furnished with a 
piercer from its breast. The young have two antennse, six legs, and 
two long hairs or bristles at the end of the body. The male scale is 
not so large as the female, and is formed of a white cottony or parch- 
ment-looking substance, constituting a case, with an elevated and 
rounded ridge in the center, in which a reddish pupa was found. The 
male larva is reddish in color, and measures not more than one fortieth 
of an inch in length. The perfect fly is also red, and is furnished with 
two hairy antennae, six legs, and has the thorax very large. The two 
wings are transparent, and the end of the body is furnished with a 
curved, hard projection. — Glover. 

LONG OR GLOVEK's SCALE. 



Mytilaspis gloverii, Packard. 





[A light yellow scale, varying to dark brown; resembles Mytilaspis citricola, but is 
much larger. (II) Branch infested by the scale, natural size, (a) Enlarged, (b) Scale of 
male, enlarged, (c) Female scale and eggs, enlarged.] 

* Report by Townsend Glover, Patent OflBce, Washington, D. C, 1855, page 119. 



This, like the preceding one, is a very common species on citrus trees 
in Florida. It infests the leaves and the bark of the trees, and is usu- 
ally associated with the purple scale {Mytilaspis citricola). This species 
is said to have been introduced into Florida about forty years ago, on 
some trees purchased of a ship in New York from China, and from those 
trees the scale has spread. 

Description. — The body of the female is light purple in color. The 
scale differs from that of Mytilaspis citricola, in being much narrower; 
is light yellow, and varying to dark brown. The eggs are white when 
first laid, but become tinged with purple before hatching, and are 
arranged in regular rows. The young larvae are purplish, the front of 
the head and the margin of the body light yellow. 



BARNACLE SCALE. 

Ceroplastcs cirripediformis, Comstock. 




[A small barnacle-like scale. 
<a) Female, enlarged.] 



Figure III represents a branch infested with the scales. 



This insect is not often met with, neither is it a very troublesome pest. 
It is not a common species, and is only found in patches. I found this 
scale on soft wooded plants in gardens and parks, and only saw it on a 
few orange trees. An Inspector in Los Angeles, however, showed me a 
number of specimens which he had taken from orange trees imported 
into that county from Florida. 



— 10 — 



FLORIDA WAX SCALE. 

Ceroplastes Jloridensis, Comstock. 




[A white scale which appears in and throughout Florida. Has not yet made its appear- 
ance in this State, and care should be exercised to prevent its introduction; and in order 
that parties importing trees or plants may be able to identify it, this description and illus- 
tration is given. Figure IV represents "a branch infested with the scale, (a) Young 
female. (6) Adult female, enlarged.] 

This scale is a very common species, and is found on wild plants 
mostly. The development of this scale is quite rapid. This insect is 
no doubt indigenous to that State. The trees attacked by it do not suf- 
fer as they do by other scales, such as the Aspidiotus and Lecaniums. 




[(a) Scale of female, 
enlarged. (6) Scale of 
male, enlarged.] 



CHAFF SCALE. 

Parlatoria 'pergandii, Comstock. 

This is perhaps the most common species of scale 
found throughout the State of Florida. It is mostly 
found on the trunks and on the large limbs of the 
trees, covering them thickly, and is but seldom seen 
on the leaves and fruit. This is a light colored 
scale, and is more or less circular. When an insect 
does settle on the fruit it occupies a pit-like depres- 
sion in the rind. The scale is so near the color of 
the bark of the trunk and large branches that it is 
liable to escape unnoticed. 



— 11 — 

FLORIDA RED SCALE.* 

AspidiotU'S ficus, Ashmead. 




[A red scale which infests citrus trees in Florida, settling on the young wood, leaves, 
and fruit. (VI) Leaves infested by the scales, (a) The female scale, enlarged. (6) The 
male scale, enlarged.] 

This scale resembles the red scale of California in form and general 
appearance, but the scale is not red, as the name implies. The color of 
the scale is of a dark chocolate color, but the discoloration of the leaves 
is similar and therefore liable to be pronounced the same. This scale is 
not widely spread throughout that State and is only found in very small 
patches. The insect is not as damaging as the red scale of California; 
at least the trees do not suffer as much. The insects do not, as a rule, 
settle on the wood, but are only to be found on very young and ten- 
der wood; they prefer to settle on the leaves and on the fruit. This 
scale insect was introduced into Florida from Havana, Cuba, in 1874, 
on a sour orange tree, and since that time ft has spread into various 
orange groves. It had been reported that this scale had been extermi- 
nated by a parasite, and also other statements have been made " that 
its disappearance was due to climatic influences." Upon investigation 
I found that there was no proper foundation for either statement, 
although the insect is not found to be as numerous as in the past few 
years. The cause of its partial disappearance was carefully looked into, 
and after careful investigation, and also from the observations made 
there by practical growers, I found that its decrease is entirely dvie to 
the excessive rains that fall in the summer during their breeding sea- 
son, and also the trees have outgrown and thrown off considerable of the 
scale by the application of chemical fertilizers which are applied there 
very freely. I examined a grove in Orlando, Florida, that at one time 
had been reported as dying and worthless, due to the ravages of this 

*[NoTE. — In Louisiana this scale attacks the banana plants, and the leaves turn yellow 
and present a sickly appearance. It was also found upon several varieties of palm and 
upon the India rubber tree {Ficus macrophylta). In the Botanical Gardens at Washing- 
ton, this scale is found upon several species of Ficus.] 



— 12 — 

scale. The owner assured me, that after doing everything that it was 
possible to do with remedies, and making but little headway, he con- 
cluded to treat the trees at the root; that if in this he did not succeed he 
would go out of the business. He treated his trees for three years with 
chemical fertilizers, and a marked effect was seen the year following the 
first application. After the third year he could find but very few scale. 
He continued to fertilize, and the result has been indeed wonderful. It 
is now very difficult to find a live scale anywhere in his orchard. 
Many of the trees yet bear the mark of the scale that once infested the 
leaves. The trees that were once condemned and declared to be worth- 
less are there to-day, bearing as much and as fine fruit as any other 
trees that were never aftected. The owner not being a wealthy grower — 
although in respectable circumstances — manufactured his own fertilizers, 
avoiding always the too free use of ammonia (after the first year), as 
this causes the trees to go mostly to wood and leaf growth instead of 
producing fruit. 

RUST MITE. 



Tyjjhlodromus oleivonis, Ashmead. 




VII. 

[ (a) Dorsal vein, (b) Lateral view, enlarged, 
circle represents natural size.] 



(c) Egg, enlarged ; dot in the center of 



This is a very dangerous pest, and one that is difficult to exterminate. 
This rust mite attacks indiscriminately the various species of the citrus 
in common cultivation, but has not been observed to feed ujDon plants of 
any other genus. It is found upon the lime, lemon, citron, shaddock, 
bigarde, and tangerine; and none of the varieties of the orange are known 
to })e in any degree exempt. — Hubl^ard. 

The foliage of the trees attacked by it present a dry, dusty, and yellow- 
ish appearance. This mite attacks the fruit when young, and retards 
its growth, and when ripe has the appearance of russet apples. This 
mite was first found on the wild or sour orange trees of Florida, and 
from those it spread to the orchards, the trees having been transported 
for cultivation from their native swamps. The mites feed upon the fruit 
and leaves in droves of many thousands, attacking the former as rapidly 



— 13 — 

as they fully mature, and the latter soon after its formation, but mostly 
after it has fully developed. 

This is a microscopical insect, and is not seen with the naked eye. If 
a leaf or fruit be picked for examination, mites will seldom be found on 
them, as all fly away instantly upon being disturbed. The glass must 
be placed before the object in such a manner as not to disturb them while 
engaged in feeding upon the leaf or fruit. 



NOTES UPON THE RED SCALE OF CALIFORNIA. 

There are two red scale insects in this State which confine their attacks 
to citrus trees. Prior to 1880 Professor Comstock visited this State and 
carried on a series of experiments upon the red scale in Los Angeles. 
The scale upon which he conducted his experiments he identified as the 
Aspidiotus aurantii of Maskell, and which is the same scale as that 
found throughout the Santa Ana Valley. This scale was introduced 
into Los Angeles County on some orange trees imported from Australia, 
and which were planted at the old Kellar homestead, on Alameda Street. 
It was introduced into the Santa Ana Valley on some orange trees also 
imported from Australia, which were planted in the Huntington orchard 
at Orange. From those trees this scale spread. In San Gabriel a scale 
insect made its appearance on some trees that were also imported from 
Australia and planted in the Rose orchard. At that time orange and 
lemon trees were only imported from Australia. 

My attention was called to this latter scale after it began to make its 
presence felt. Upon examination I concluded it was a different insect 
from the Santa Ana Valley variety. In 1880 I communicated these 
facts to Mr. Alexander Craw, of Los Angeles, a very careful entomologist, 
who visited the orchard and fully agreed with me in my conclusions. 
In 1881 the late Mr. Cooke, then Horticultural Officer, visited Los An- 
geles, and I took him to San Gabriel, and after careful examination he 
also pronounced it different from the Santa Ana Valley scale. 

It has been said that "there may be two forms of the same insect." 
If this be true, why are their attacks on the tree so different? Mr. Klee, 
in his report as Inspector of Fruit Pests (Biennial Reports State Board 
of Horticulture, 1885-6 and 1887-8), mentions the fact that the two in- 
sects are different, but described the one prevalent throughout the Santa 
Ana Valley and Los Angeles City as an "Australian type," and the one 
prevalent throughout the San Gabriel Valley as a " Japanese type." 
The trees that arrive from Japan are generally infested by this latter 
species, but previous to 1880 no orange trees were ever imported from 
Japan. The trees upon which both of these scales came were imported 
direct from Australia, and beyond this we know but little; but all indi- 
cations point towards Australia as being the home of both these scales. 

In 1880 I had the management of a large orange grove in Orange, 
where I carried on a series of experiments covering a period of three 
years. In 1883 I moved to San Gabriel, where I carried on a series of 
experiments covering a period of two years. I was thus able to notice 
the difference between the two insects. 



— 14 — 

DEDUCTIONS. 

From observations made, I feel satisfied that there are no "two forms," 
hut that the red scale found throughout the Santa Ana Valley and the 
red scale found in the San Gabriel Valley are two different and distinct 
insects. Why ? First, because the red scale that is found throughout the 
Santa Ana Valley attacks the limbs, leaves, fruit, and the trunk of the 
trees. The one at San Gabriel only attacks the leaves and the fruit. Sec- 
ondly, in the former the limbs die back; in the latter they do not, as the 
former covers the bark of the trunk and limbs thickly, and the latter onl}^ 
attacks the leaves and the fruit. Thirdly, the color of the scale of the 
former is vermilion red; the color of the latter, dirty yellow, and much 
smaller. The young scale of the former, as soon as a covering begins to 
form over the insect, is also of a vermilion red, while that of the latter 
does not differ from the color of the mature scale. 



PARASITES AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS. 

Several parasites and beneficial insects have been introduced into 
California from the Eastern and Southern States, and are now being 
propagated at three difierent stations of the Board. Very soon their 
merits will be known, and, if satisfactory, they will be distributed 
throughout the State. All parasites and predaceous insects arrived in 
very good condition. Colonel J. R. Dobbins, of San Gabriel, who received 
the first colonies, under date of May twenty-seventh writes: "Your 
several letters from Florida, Washington, and New York were duly 
received, as also the box containing the beetles in fine order. I did not 
disturb them, but merely took the cover from the box and fastened it 
(the box) among the foliage of the tree, just as I did last year with the 
Vedalia colonies. I covered two medium sized trees with cheesecloth 
stretched over a wooden frame, and, as suggested in yours, gave an 
entire tree to each variety. Each tree was more or less infested with 
red and black scale, and some aphis. I have looked into these cover- 
ings several times, but it is much too soon to expect any development. 
I had the first lot of Vedalia nearly two months before any increase or 
work was manifest, and shall not look for anything better in connection 
with those you sent me. They have been well handled, protected, and 
cared for, and we must now await the pleasure of dame Nature. My 
opinion is that no one can form any intelligent ideas as to what may be 
the outcome of the experiment until sufficient time has elapsed for them 
to increase and multiply. If they do that, we shall know to a certainty 
that they have found something to eat and to sustain themselves upon, 
and measures can then be taken to learn of what their diet may con- 
sist." 

It had been reported that the Australian lady bird ( Vedalia cardi- 
nalis) had died out, and it looked very much that way, from the fact 
that none could be found until last week (about June first), when sev- 
eral_ thousand were shipped to all parts of the State from one of the 
stations of this Board. Colonel Dobbins, under date of June first, 
advises the Board as follows: "Two boxes of Vedalia arrived — one on 
Saturday, the other on Sunday — and they were in good shape. One 
colony I located in my own neighborhood, and put the other at Sunny 



— 15 — 

Slope. You need not send any more just at present, for if these three 
colonies do well this valley will soon be well supplied." 



FERTILIZING AND FERTILIZERS— HOW TO COMPOUND 

FORMULAS. 

Having mentioned the use of fertilizers and their wonderful etlect 
upon plant life, I deem it but just to describe the different elements 
which are the most essential to plant growth, together with the best 
methods of compounding them, although most of our soils possess the 
desired elements for plant growth. 

POTASH. 

Potash is the element potassium combined with oxygen — " potassium 
oxide," it is called by the agricultural chemists. Potassium itself is 
but a curiosity of the laboratory, for it can be kept pure only by 
excluding all air, and is therefore only to be found in the bottle of the 
chemist. The name " potash " was given it because it was made in iron 
pots from ashes. 

Potash is a most caustic, biting alkali, dissolving and decomposing 
all organic structures it comes in contact with. It is one of the most 
powerful bases; in other words, it is a vigorous, unprincipled chemical 
thief, seizing upon and absorbing into itself the acids it finds combined 
with various saline compounds. Pure water could not dissolve the 
potash as it exists in the particles of feldspar and mica that are found 
in the soil; but, taking carbonic acid from the air, it has the power of 
dissolving the silicate of potash, leaving the quartz and alumina to form 
the clays. Caustic lime also has this power. The silica, combined with 
the potash, and marrying the lime, sets the potash free. In the vege- 
table kingdom it is held by plants while in the process of growth, in a 
soluble state, combined with oxalic, tartaric, silicic, and sulphuric acids. 
When wood is burned, these acids are decomposed; and, the potash com- 
bining with carbonic acid, we have the common form of carbonate of 
potash. Potash is not only one of the three essentials for all plant 
growth, but it is also found in the fruits, vegetables, and grains. 

HUMUS. 

There is a value in barn manure, in addition to its fertilizing prop- 
erties. Its bulk has a mechanical effect on the soil, improving heavy 
soils and lightening the texture of all soils — a fact of especial value to 
market gardeners in their early crops. By its partial decomposition, it 
adds to the mass of dark brown earth which we so especially notice in 
old gardens, and which goes under the name of humus. Humus is 
dead vegetable and animal matter in process of decay. In good soil, 
there is, in a latent condition, potash, phosphoric acid, and lime. Car- 
bonic acid changes these into plant food. Now, humus, by its decay, 
develops carbonic acid, and so brings about the decomposition of this 
latent food. Wet weather favors this action. That carbonic acid has 
this power to set free plant food in the soil has been proved by the 
experiments of Professor Stockhardt. Crops take up only a small por- 



— 16 — 

tion of the fertilizers applied before the nutrient substances they contain 
become insoluble. The humus keeps them in a soluble condition, which 
is an argument for the use of barn manure, or the plowing under of 
weeds or green crops, in connection with the use of fertilizers. It acts 
as a sponge to absorb and hold moisture in low, black soils, which are 
made up of dead vegetable matter in a state of semi-decay, halfway 
towards coal — a carbonaceous mass of stems, roots, and leaves. Burned, 
it makes an ashes red, from the presence of iron, having but one sixth 
the potash to be found in hard-wood ashes. The trouble is, that when 
dry it takes up water very slowly, and it takes therefore a good deal of 
rain to moisten it; while, on the other hand, when wet it keeps wet and 
cold too long for the health of vegetation. Without draining, manure 
is a waste on such soils. 

Humus* holds a great store of carbonic acid, which decomposes the 
minerals in the soil, setting free potash and phosphoric acid. It also 
holds latent nitrogen, sometimes as high as 3 per cent, which is six 
times as much as in average stable manure. This is made plant food 
by the application of lime or carbonate of potash. 

Humus is not in itself plant food. It is not necessary for the yield 
of heavy crops. 

PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

This, the third substance in the three components of a complete fertil- 
izer, is composed of the element phosphorus, combined with the gas 
oxygen. The four great resources for phosphoric acid are the mineral 
called apatite, which contains 92 per cent of phosphate of lime, and is 
believed by some chemists to be the original source in nature from 
which phosphate of lime is derived; the phosphatic guanos, which are 
the product of sea fowls, from which the ammonia has been washed out 
by the rain; the bones of all animals, and the mineral phosphate rocks, 
which are the remains of ancient marine animals. 

BARN MANURE. 

Its Composition and Fertilizing Properties. 

The latest analysis made of fresh barnyard manure proved to contain 
the following kind and quantity of elements: 

Water 71.3 

Nitrogen 0.5 

Silica and insoluble matter. .-. 10.5 

Alumina and oxide of iron 0.7 

Lime 0.5 

Potash 0.4 

Soda 0.1 

Phosphoric acid 0.5 

Chlorine 0.1 

In about 4,500 pounds of fresh stable manure we should have in it 
3,208 pounds of water, 22-| pounds of nitrogen, 472^ pounds of silica, 
31-5 pounds of alumina of iron, 22-^ pounds of lime, 13^ pounds of mag- 
nesia, 18 pounds of potash, 4^ pounds of soda, 4-| pounds of sulphuric 
acid, 22-i pounds of phosphoric acid, and 4^ pounds of chlorine. By the 
composition given it will be noticed that bulk is not what is necessary, 

* Professor Gregory—" How to Compound Fertilizers." 



— 17 — 

but instead of bulk the proper elements as fertilizers in a concentrated 
form are more valuable as plant food than many manures and many so 
called " commercial fertilizers " a hundred times as bulky. Fertilizers 
in some form can be made to last like barnyard manure, and feed several 
successive crops with a single application. For instance, in ashes and 
bone we have all the elements for a complete manure, when all that is 
required is to apply an extra quantity of ashes and a portion of the bone 
in a coarse state. Ashes are always enduring in their effect, and the 
coarser bone will be years in decaying and setting free nitrogen and phos- 
phoric acid. To continually apply but a single one of the three elements 
which enter into the complete manure, and especially if that one should 
be nitrogen, and for a series of years be in marked excess of the other 
two, would, in the end, sooner or later, prove that the conclusions often 
advanced are correct, however faulty they might have been in their rea- 
soning. The fact that the one of the three elements, nitrogen, potash, 
or phosphoric acid, of which the soil has the least, and which has been 
repeatedly proven, will always be the measure of the crop. A hundred 
pounds of potash applied would not give a larger yield than five pounds 
(and so of the other two elements), if there is not a proportionate in- 
crease of the other elements. 

" The right way is to make the most and best manure that is practi- 
cable upon the farm, and piece out with such commercial fertilizers as 
experiments and experience prove profitable. At the same time there 
are many cases, especially near cities, where everything depends upon 
getting the largest and best (and earliest) yield, where the more exclu- 
sive use of chemical fertilizers is advisable." * 

Artificial fertilizers are, of course, much more cheaply transported, 
and unlike barn manure they do not carry with them seeds of weeds 
into the soil, and as they contain the fertilizing elements in so condensed 
a form the whole handling of them becomes much cheaper, where thej^ 
can be obtained from reliable sources. 

" Fertilizers rich in ammonia, Peruvian guano, sulphate of ammonia, 
etc., should be applied a little at a time and often." f 

Clayey soils do not as a rule need so much potash or nitrogen as 
phosphoric acid. Nitrogen tends to promote leaf growth. Fertilizers 
applied to poor land produce more effect than when applied to rich land. 
If the bone in the soil does not all decompose the first year, the nitrogen 
contained in it goes over with it and is not lost. If but one of the ele- 
ments is to be used it should by all means be bone, and the finer the 
bone and the finer and drier the fertilizer the more valuable it is. When 
the animal matter in bone decays the phosphoric acid in the bone is in 
a reverted condition. 

BONES. 

The bones of land animals are composed of the following elements: 

(Telatine, fat, and water 48.0 

Phosphate of lime, with a little magnesia 46.0 

Carbonate of lime 4.0 

Potash and soda : 2 

100.0 

*Says Professor Atwater. 
+ Professor Atwater, "Fertilization." 

Note.— The grower should not forget that in using Dotash or phosphoric acid in any 
form It never wastes in the soil to any extent, and one application will last seyeral years. 
2h 



— 18 — 

The gelatine contains from 3 to 5 per cent of nitrogen, and the phos- 
phate of lime (or bone phosphate) from 18 to 23 per cent of phosphoric 
acid. Bones are brought to the fertilizer manufacturer as the waste of 
the slaughter-house or butcher shops. Where they have been exposed 
to the action of the elements bones are found to have lost more or less 
of their gelatine, and hence are not so rich in nitrogen. The methods 
of preparing bones for plant food are numerous. By one method the 
gelatine is saved, and by the other lost. To make the phosphoric in 
this fully soluble, the bones must be first treated with sulphuric acid, 
though the results from burning the bones are to reduce the particles to 
so fine a state as to make them more or less available without the use 
of acid. 

BONE MEAL. 

This substance is made by cracking up and grinding dry bones. These 
contain, as materials valuable for fertilizers, phosphate of lime and cer- 
tain complex substances containing nitrogen. The phosphate is the 
chief constituent; it forms the frames of the bones, and is what might 
be called the mineral portion of the same. The other plant food con- 
tained in bones belongs to that class of matter from which the plant 
obtains the material necessary for building — the so called albuminoid 
substance, such as the gluten of wheat, and the legumin of the pea, to 
which those substances owe their nourishing and flesh-forming qual- 
ities. The more finely divided a fertilizer is the more valuable it is, on 
account of the greater readiness with which it goes into solution. Hence, 
in determining the value of a fertilizer, the mechanical analysis is of 
considerable assistance. 

MANUFACTURING SUPERPHOSPHATE. 

In the manufacture of superphosphate. Professor Nichols recommends 
the following plan: Take a plank box four feet square and one foot deep. 
This may be simply water tight, and if so there must be no nails that 
the acid can reach, for it will eat them out and so make a leak, or it 
may be lined with lead, all soldering being done with lead solder. The 
box will be large enough to take a carboy of sulphuric acid with the 
necessary quantity of phosphate material and water to make about a 
quarter of a ton of superphosphate. If finely ground bone be used, 
the result following will be a pasty mass, needing mixing with muck or 
other dry material to get it in good mechanical condition for use. If, 
instead of bone, bone black is used, the result will be a dry mass easily 
handled. To make superphosphate, a carboy of one hundred and sixty 
pounds of sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol (60 degrees), three hundred 
and eight pounds of bone black, and ten gallons of water are required. 
Having first donned old clothes, and having at hand a little saleratus 
or some alkali, ready to rub on any spot should by chance a drop 
spatter (for where it touches if not immediately neutralized it Avill char 
like fire), he sure to first pour in the water, and then the acid; next, 
slowly add the bone, stirring it all the while with an old hoe of but 
little value. There will be a great commotion, a great boiling, frothing, 
and foaming, and throwing off of heat with a suffocating vapor. Because 
of the suffocating vapor, it is better to do the work in the open air or 
under an open shed. 



— 19 — 

Professor Johnson in his report (Connecticut Experiment Station, 
1881) gives two methods; the one which he considers best adapted for 
domestic use of any of the processes involving the use of oil of vitriol, 
is as follows: Take one hundred pounds of ground bone, such as con- 
tains 20 to 50 per cent, more or less, of material coarser than would pass 
through a sieve, having a one-half inch mesh, twenty-five pounds of oil 
of vitriol, and six quarts of water. Separate the bone by sifting into 
two, or if the proportion of coarse bone is large, into three parts, using 
sieves of one-sixteenth and one-eighth inch mesh. Mix the coarser part 
of the bone in a cast-iron or lead-lined vessel with the oil of vitriol. 
When the bone is thoroughly wet with the strong acid add the water, 
stirring and mixing well. The addition of the water to the acid develops 
a large amount of heat, which favors the action. Let stand, with occa- 
sional stirring, for twenty-four hours, or until the coarser fragments of 
bone are quite soft, then three grades of bone are used. Work in the 
next coarser bone and let stand another day or two, until the acid has 
softened all the coarse bone, or has spent its action; finally dry off the 
mass by mixing well with the finest bone. 

In carrying out this process, the quantity of oil of vitriol can be varied 
somewhat; increased a few pounds if the bone has a large proportion of 
coarse fragments, or diminished if it is fine. 

Professor Stockhardt, the celebrated agricultural chemist, recommends 
the following process: From a mixture of sifted wood or coal ashes and 
earth thrown upon a barn or shed floor from a circular wall so as to 
inclose a pit capable of containing one hundred weight of ground bone, 
then make the surrounding wall of ashes so firm as not to yield by being 
trodden on; sift off the finer part of the bone and set it aside; throw the 
coarser part into the cavity and sprinkle it, during continued stirring, 
with three quarts of water, until the whole is uniformly moistened; add 
gradually eleven pounds of oil of vitriol of 60 degrees strength, the agi- 
tation of the shovel being continued. A brisk effervescence of the mass 
will ensue, which will not, however, rise above the margin of the pit if 
the acid is poured on in separate small quantities. After twenty-four 
hours sprinkle again with three quarts of water, add the same quan- 
tity of sulphuric acid as before, with the same brisk shoveling of the 
mass, and leave the substance to act for another twenty-four hours upon 
each other; then intermix the fine bone previously sifted off, and finally 
shovel the ashes and the earth of the pit into the decomposed bone until 
they are all uniformly mixed together. 

It will be noticed that the last two processes use half or less than 
half the usual quantity of acid allowed for a hundred pounds of bone. 
The phosphoric acid in finely ground bone can also be made available 
by the caustic action of the potash in unleached wood ashes. 

Professor Nichols recommends the following method: Take one barrel 
rawbone flour, three barrels dry unleached wood ashes, ninety pounds 
gypsum, and ten gallons of water; make a heap of the solid materials 
on the barn floor, and add the water, stirring constantly with a hoe. 
The result is perfect plant food, containing all the elements plants re- 
quire in about the same proportions. 

Professor Dooling advises a little different method and proportions. 
He recommends the following: Mix five barrels of finely ground bone 
with five barrels of unleached hard- wood ashes, and add water sufficient 
to moisten the mass, and then cover with loam. Leave the heap three 



v> 



— 20 



weeks, adding a little water, if it, on examination, appears to be nearly- 
dry. 

WOOD ASHES. 

Wood ashes are our great home source for potash. These are brought 
into the market from several sources. " Wood ashes," says Professor 
Goessimann, "have an agricultural value much above their chemical 
value." Professor Gregory adds that " the principal reason of this is 
that they contain not only potash but all the elements of plant food 
except nitrogen, and these in just the same proportion as they exist in 
nature, with the additional advantage of having them in a very fine 
state of subdivision." 

The wood of different trees differ not only in the proportion of potash, 
lime, and phosphoric acid in their ashes, but also in the quantity of 
their ashes in equal quantities by measure of wood. 

COAL ASHES. 

Coal ashes contain no appreciable amount of potash; the chief ingre- 
dient is silica. They contain also some lime and magnesia. The trace 
of potash comes from the wood used in kindling fires, and the coal itself. 
Coal ashes prove of but little value on most soils, beyond making heavy 
soils more open and supplying silica to land of a much like character, 
still there is considerable of value in them when used in connection with 
manure. 



020 973 020 



